Like the Trojan War, the Greco Persian Wars were a defining moment in Greek history. The Athenians, who would dominate Greece culturally and politically through the fifth century B.C., regarded the wars against Persia as their greatest and most characteristic moment.

The Persian Wars began when Athens agreed to come to the aid of the greek-speaking city-states on the coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) who were in rebellion against the Persian empire. Their participation in the insurrection turned Persian attention to Athens and so (coaxed along by some disgruntled Greek exiles of course), in 490 B.C. Darius the Great launched an attack against the Greek mainland. The Athenian forces were under the command of Miltiades, a general who had previously been governor of an Ionian city, and involved in the revolt against Persia. At the Battle of Marathon he urged the Athenians to attack immediately without waiting for reinforcement, even though their army was only a fraction of the size of the Persians. The Battle of Marathon is perhaps the single most important battle in Greek history. Had the Athenians lost, Greece would have eventually come under the control of the Persians and all the subsequent culture and accomplishments of the Greeks may have been lost to posterity.

The Persians did not attack Greece again for ten years, but when Darius�s son Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) became king, the Persians launched another expedition against Athens. This time they were determined to use overwhelming force so in 481 B.C., Xerxes gathered together an army of several hundred thousand infantry and a navy of six hundred ships. He demanded that the Greek city-states submit to him without resistance, and many did, including Thebes. The Athenians and Spartans however, insulted the Persian ambassadors and vowed resistance to the end. Fortunately for all of Greece, the Athenian politician Themistocles had foreseen trouble many years ahead of time, and had convinced the Athenians to begin a navy-building project so by the time of the great Persian invasion, Athens had a navy of over two hundred ships.

While Xerxes gathered his army at the Hellespont, the 31 Greek city states that had decided to resist the Persians (many of the smaller cities had already conceded defeat and refused to send armies), were fielding a united Greek army, under the leadership of Sparta. A Spartan admiral was even put in command of the navy, although Athens provided by far the largest fleet, but Themistocles was very influential in all naval operations. The first great battle of the united Greeks against Xerxes army was at Thermopylae, a narrow pass in the north of Thessaly. It was there that the Spartan King Leonidas, with 300 Spartans held out for three days against the entire Persian army. After a lopsided battle in which thousands of Persians were slaughtered, the resolute Spartans were eventually surrounded and killed to a man, and Xerxes army passed unopposed to Athens, which it burned to the ground.

As soon as the pass of Thermopylae was lost, the Greek fleet worked full time to evacuate Athens and its surrounding communities to local islands. They were stationed on the Island of Salamis, in sight of the ruins of Athens, when after a fit of contentious infighting, the decision was made to give battle to the Persians at once. The famous naval Battle of Salamis ensued, during which the Greek fleet won a dramatic and decisive victory over the much larger Persian navy. The Persian fleet was destroyed, and Xerxes returned to Persia, leaving Mardonius in charge of the conquered region. Most of the citizens in Athens retired to islands off the mainland, or to the Peloponnesian Peninsula, which the Spartans had fortified in anticipation of a Persian attack. It was not until the following spring that Spartan leadership realized the Persians had no intention of meeting them at their fortified isthmus, and that in order to drive the Persians from Greek soil they would have to meet them in open battle. After considerable hesitation and delay, a terrific battle was fought at Plataea, and the Persians were defeated, and nearly killed to a man.

The Persian war was remarkable not only for its ferocious battles, which showcased the superiority of Greek military methods, but also for the striking personalities involved, the democratic character of the military command, and the ability of the fractious Greeks to drop their strong divisions and unite behind a single cause. The war is a popular one to study, not only because of its striking military engagements and historical significance but also for the great human dramas that were played out behind the scenes.

TIMELINE

Year	Event
500 BC	Ionian Revolt—Athens supports Ionian Greek's rebellion against Persia.
493 BC	Mardonius leads Persia's first, failed invasion of Greece.
490 BC	Persia's second invasion of Greece foiled by Athens' victory at Marathon.
481 BC	Persia's third and largest invasion of Greece led by Xerxes.
480 BC	Battle of Thermopylae—three hundred Spartans perish holding the pass.
480 BC	Battle of Salamis—great naval victory for Greece destroys Persian fleet.
479 BC	Battle of Plataea—Persian driven from occupied territories of mainland Greece.
478 BC	Death of Pausanias, hero of Plataea
460 BC	Death of Themistocles, hero of Salamis

Years	War	Outcome
499–450 BC	Greco Persian Wars	Greeks repel Persia's invasion of Greece and win freedom for Ionian colonies.
492–340 BC	Sicilian Wars	Greek Sicilians repel Carthaginian invasions and win their independence.

CHARACTERS

Character	Dates	Short Biography
Artaphernes	fl. 500 BC	Brother of Darius, Satrap of Lydia during Ionian Rebellion. Lead Persian forces at Marathon.
Histiaeus	died 494 BC	Very close advisor to Darius, rescued him from disaster in Scythia, later rebelled. Father in law of Aristagoras.
Aristagoras	fl. 494 BC	Son-in-law of Histiaeus. Led Rebellion of Greek Colonies in Asia Minor.
Pheidippides	died 490 BC	Ran from Athens to Sparta to warn of Persians. Ran to Athens after Marathon, then died.
Miltiades	died 489 BC	Athenian General who led Greece to great victory at the Battle of Marathon.
Mardonius	died 489 BC	Brother-in-law, and Commander and Chief of Xerxes's Army.
Bulis and Sperthias	fl. 485 BC	Volunteered to sacrifice their lives to the Persian King to expiate the murder of Ambassadors.
Leonidas	died 480 BC	Spartan King whose whole army died defending the pass of Thermopylae.
Artabanus	fl. 480 BC	Brother of Darius. Close advisor to Darius and Xerxes.
Pythius	fl. 480 BC	Satrap who magnificently hosted Xerxes and was repaid by having his eldest son slain.
Artemisia	fl. 480 BC	Queen of Halicarnassas and Cos. One of Xerxes most trusted advisors and Generals.
Eurybiades	fl. 480 BC	Head of Spartan Fleet during the Persian War.
Pausanias	died 470 BC	Spartan General who led Greece against Mardonius at the Battle of Plataea.
Xerxes	520-465 BC	Raised an enormous army for Persian invasion of Greece. Defeated at Battle of Salamis.
Themistocles	525-462 BC	Athenian Hero of the Battle of Salamis. He masterminded Athenian Naval supremacy.
Demaratus	fl. 480 BC	Exiled King of Sparta, advisor to Xerxes during his invasion of Greece.
Aristides	died 468 BC	Athenian General and Statesman. Fought at Marathon, Salamis; created Delian League.